Acre's Displaced Villages
Acre District's Colonies

Acre was first founded by either a Canaanite or a Phoenician Arab tribe known by al-Jar Jashyyein on Tel al-Fukhar, two kilometers East of the city.  For the Canaanites, Acre was known by ‘Akkaw (meaning hot sand), which is derived from the Arabic word ‘Akk, meaning intense rubbing.

In 1945, the district covered an area of 799.67 square km, of which 2.79 square km were allocated for public use, such as roads, wadies, railroads, etc. Zionists owned only 25 square km, which constituted 3.1% of the overall district’s size.

During the Ottoman period, the district was made up of more than 60 villages. During the British Mandate, it was shrunk to 48 villages (of which 26 villages were completely ethnically cleansed and defaced by the Zionists after the 194 war), eight Bedouin localities, and nine Zionist colonies.

It should be noted that the villages of Iqrit, Tabrikha, and al-Mansura are Lebanese villages that became part of Palestine after WWI.

Acre is located at the northern edge of the Bay of Acre—one of the most significant bays along the eastern Mediterranean coast. Positioned between Ras al-Naqoura to the north and Mount Carmel to the south, its location was strategically chosen for natural protection. The surrounding terrain—ranging from the foothills of the Galilee mountains to the swamps of the Na’aman River—provided natural barriers, making it easier to defend in its early days and impeding the advance of ancient invaders.

Acre’s geography is best described as “deceptively accessible.” While it may appear easy to reach via the Mediterranean Sea or the coastal plain of Palestine, the city’s strategic terrain proves to be a formidable challenge for would-be aggressors.

This characteristic has shaped Acre’s strategic significance, both historically and in modern times. Its openness to both land and sea routes made it a highly desirable location for empires seeking control over the eastern Mediterranean. Many powers have sought to dominate Acre due to this geographic advantage, which enabled strong external connectivity.

Thus, Acre’s location has been both a blessing and a curse: a blessing in its role as a cultural and commercial hub, and a curse due to the repeated foreign ambitions it attracted.

The city is well-connected to its hinterland through a network of important roads and railways. A coastal road links it northward to Lebanon via Ras al-Naqoura (17 km away), and southward through the Palestinian coastal cities down to Egypt. Acre is also connected to the Galilee, the Jezreel Valley, and the Jordan Valley. A railway line links it to Haifa and continues southward to the Qantara line, while paved roads extend from Acre through the Jezreel Valley to the highlands of Nablus, Jerusalem, and Hebron.

Despite the historical importance of its port, the proximity of the larger Haifa port has somewhat diminished Acre’s maritime prominence.

Geographically, Acre sits on a small peninsula at the northern tip of the bay, surrounded by water on its west and south sides, and connected to land on the north and east. Built on elevated terrain—ranging from gentle to rugged—it was deliberately placed above the low valley to avoid sea flooding during storms. The port lies on the southern edge of the peninsula, protected from northern winds but exposed to strong southwesterly winds, especially in winter. Acre is encircled by fortified walls, with gates opening to both land and sea.

Geography and Environment:

Acre’s surrounding landscape includes several marshes, notably the Shaḥūṭa Marsh, which once stretched over 3 square kilometers east of the city, formed by the seasonal flooding of the Na’aman River during winter. Another significant wetland is the Ein al-Baqar Marsh, fed by the spring of the same name. Additionally, there are Birket al-Hammam (Hammam Pond) and the nearby Hammam Marsh.

To the south of Acre lie expansive white sand dunes, where palm trees are cultivated. Scattered across the plains east of the city are several hills, such as Tel al-Fukhār, Tel Kissan, Tel Kurdānah, and Tel al-‘Ayādiyah. The Na’aman River flows into the Bay of Acre, south of the city, with the Ein al-Baqar spring on its northern bank.

Acre receives its freshwater supply from an aqueduct fed by the Kabri Spring, located to the northeast. The surrounding plains form a fertile agricultural hinterland, supporting diverse crops and enhancing the city’s importance as a maritime and economic hub. Compared to Tyre’s plain in Lebanon, Acre’s plain is lower in elevation and narrower, encircled by hills stretching from Ras al-Naqoura in the north to Mount Carmel in the south. These hills have historically served as military outposts during sieges or for defense.

Climate:

Acre enjoys a Mediterranean climate: hot and dry summers, and mild, rainy winters. Due to its coastal position, the climate remains generally moderate, with an average temperature of 9–15°C in January to 22–31°C in August. Humidity averages 67% annually, higher in winter. The annual Rainfall average is 600 mm, mostly falling over about 50 days, concentrated in the southwestern parts of the city that face the prevailing rain-bearing southwesterly winds.

Historical Overview:

Acre’s origins trace back to the 3rd millennium BCE, founded by the Girgashites, a Canaanite Arab tribe. They named it “Akko”, meaning “hot sand.” According to Roman historian Pliny the Elder (d. 113 CE), these early settlers are credited with the invention of glass. The legend tells of sailors who, while cooking on the sandy shores using potassium nitrate (niter) blocks as supports, accidentally fused the material with sand, thus producing glass. Acre’s shores were also rich in murex shellfish, a source of the prized purple dye (Tyrian purple).

Acre was first conquered by Egyptian Pharaoh Thutmose III in 1479 BCE, and later by Seti I in 1324 BCE. The Hebrews, including during the reign of King David (1000–970 BCE), failed to capture it, which allowed it to retain its Canaanite identity. In the 8th century BCE, it fell to the Assyrian King Shalmaneser V, who used its fleet for military purposes.

In the 6th century BCE, Acre became part of the Persian Empire during its conquest of the Levant. It remained under Persian rule until the campaigns of Alexander the Great in the late 4th century BCE, when it came under Macedonian control.

Under the Ptolemies, Acre was renamed “Ptolemais” in honor of Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–247 BCE), becoming a key Hellenistic stronghold. Later, it came under the rule of the Seleucids, successors to Alexander in Asia. In 69 BCE, Acre was seized by Tigranes the Great, King of Armenia, during his conquest of Syria.

The Hellenistic period (under Seleucid rule) brought a profound Greek cultural influence to Acre, which became a fully Hellenized city, rich in Greek art, architecture, and urban design. This cultural blend of Greek and Semitic elements gave rise to a unique Hellenistic civilization, a legacy that continued into the Roman era.

Roman era:

In 64 BCE, during Rome’s conquest of Syria, General Pompey captured Acre. It was visited by Julius Caesar in 47 BCE and incorporated into the Roman province of Syria. During this period, Acre flourished economically, renowned for its silk weaving and purple dye production. Trade prospered, especially after Emperor Nero (54–68 CE) built the coastal road from Antioch to Rafah, positioning Acre as a key fish trade center. In the 1st century CE, it also became a Christian bishopric, visited by St. Paul.

Byzantine and Early Islamic Periods:

With the division of the Roman Empire in 395 CE, Acre became part of the Eastern (Byzantine) Empire, remaining so until the 7th century, when Muslim Arab conquests reached the region. In 636 CE (16 AH), Sharhabil ibn Hasna captured the city. Later, Muawiyah ibn Abi Sufyan, governor of Syria, recognized the need for a naval force to protect coastal regions. Utilizing well-equipped Byzantine shipyards in Acre, he launched the first Arab naval expeditions to Cyprus (649 CE) and Rhodes (654 CE). Thus, Acre became the first Arab Mediterranean naval base.

Under the Umayyads, Acre thrived in olive oil and sugarcane production, sustaining its prosperity through subsequent Arab rule.

Tulunid and Fatimid Periods:

In 877 CE (264 AH), Ahmad ibn Tulun took control of Syria and fortified Acre. He constructed a naval base, a double-walled tower. He commissioned a functional harbor using sycamore logs and stones, aided by Abu Bakr al-Banna, grandfather of the famous geographer al-Muqaddasi. This made Acre one of the most fortified ports on the Syrian coast.

In the mid-10th century, the city fell under the Ikhshidids, and later the Fatimids in 969 CE, remaining under their control (except during brief Seljuk incursions) until the end of the 11th century.

Crusader Conquest and the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem:

During the First Crusade, the Crusaders sought to control key Palestinian ports. Acre, under Fatimid rule, became a target. In 1102 CE, Fatimid ships captured Christian pilgrims and sold them into slavery, prompting King Baldwin I of Jerusalem to besiege the city in 1103. After failing due to Acre’s strong fortifications and Fatimid reinforcements, Baldwin allied with the fleets of Genoa and Pisa.

In 1104 CE, a joint naval and land assault forced Acre to surrender after 20 days of fierce resistance. It became the main port of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem and a major hub for trade with Damascus and the Western world. The city remained in Crusader hands until Saladin recaptured it in 1187 CE.

The Crusaders recognized Acre’s strategic value, laid siege again from 1189 to 1191, and regained control. They held the city for a century, until 1291 CE, when Mamluk Sultan al-Ashraf Khalil defeated them and expelled the last Crusaders, making Acre the final stronghold of the Crusaders in the East.

After the Mamluk Conquest (1291 CE):

After al-Ashraf Khalil recaptured Acre, he deliberately destroyed its fortifications to prevent any future Crusader return. Fires engulfed its markets, and the city declined. Travelers in the 14th and 15th centuries, including Ibn Battuta, al-Qalqashandi, and Abu al-Fida, noted its weakened state. Ludolf von Suchem observed that only 60 soldiers guarded the city. By the 15th century, Broquière noted Acre had shrunk to only 300 houses—a shadow of its former glory.

Ottoman Rule and the Rise of Acre

Following the Ottoman conquest, Acre began to slowly regain its former commercial significance during the 16th and 17th centuries. Once the rest of Greater Syria had been integrated into the Ottoman Empire, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent granted King Francis I of France the right to establish a French trade center in the city.

Acre also advanced under Emir Fakhr al-Din II al-Ma’ni in the early 17th century, who constructed a palace, a mosque, and a customs post there. He also restored the city’s main tower, which contributed to urban growth and commercial prosperity. Acre began exporting cotton and welcoming ships, laying the foundation for a new era of development.

The Zenith Under Zahir al-Umar

Acre’s true renaissance came under the leadership of Sheikh Zahir al-Umar al-Zaydani, who made it his capital after capturing it in 1750 CE (1163 AH). He rebuilt its fortifications and towers, restored its defensive walls, and established key commercial infrastructure such as the White Market (Souq al-Abyad) and Khan al-Shawneh. Zahir promoted agriculture, trade, and industry across the region, transforming Acre into a major export hub for cotton, silk, wheat, and other northern Palestinian products.

Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar and the Napoleonic Siege

Zahir was succeeded by Ahmad Pasha al-Jazzar, under whose rule Acre faced one of the most significant events of the era: the defeat of Napoleon Bonaparte. Napoleon, after conquering Egypt and the coastal areas of Palestine, laid siege to Acre by land and sea from March 21 to May 20, 1799. He made his base on a nearby hill later known as Napoleon Hill. However, the city withstood the assault thanks to al-Jazzar’s fortified defenses and critical assistance from the British fleet under Sir Sidney Smith, who captured French ships and transported their heavy artillery to bolster Acre’s defenses. Napoleon was forced to retreat, marking the collapse of his eastern ambitions.

Al-Jazzar fortified the city with double walls, and developed its urban landscape by constructing a splendid mosque (modeled after grand Istanbul mosques), a covered market, public baths, and the famed Khan al-Umdan (Caravanserai of the Pillars). He also brought fresh water from the village of al-Kabri via aqueducts. In 1780 (1195 AH), the Ottoman Porte appointed him governor of Damascus and Lebanon in addition to Acre, effectively making him the Sultan’s viceroy in the region. The renowned 18th-century traveler Volney, who visited between 1783 and 1785, described Acre during this period as “the greatest city on the coast.”

Post-Napoleonic Period and Egyptian Invasion

In 1799 (1214 AH), Acre reached the height of its glory after successfully repelling Napoleon’s siege. Upon al-Jazzar’s death, Sulayman Pasha al-Adil took over, repairing the damage caused by the siege and restoring public infrastructure. He rebuilt the al-Mujadalah and Bahar mosques, resumed water supplies from Kabri, and created a garden named after his daughter Fatima in 1816. The garden featured fruit trees, flowers, four pavilions, a pool, and its own water system. A wooden pier was constructed to ease passenger access to boats, and the White Market was rebuilt.

Egyptian Occupation and Decline

Acre later came under the rule of Abdullah Pasha al-Khazindar. During his reign, Ibrahim Pasha, son of Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt, launched a campaign against Syria and besieged Acre for six months. In 1832 (1247 AH), he captured the city, maintaining Egyptian control until 1840 (1256 AH), when the Egyptian forces withdrew. Acre also suffered a devastating earthquake in 1837 (1253 AH), which caused extensive damage and claimed 141 lives.

After the Egyptian withdrawal, Acre reverted to being the capital of the Wilayah of Sidon. However, its importance waned after it was annexed to the Wilayah of Syria in 1864 (1281 AH), becoming one of its districts. The establishment of the Wilayah of Beirut in 1888 (1305 AH), comprising five districts, including Acre, further marginalized the city’s commercial role. The decline deepened with the opening of the Beirut-Damascus railway in 1895 (1313 AH), which diverted much of the regional trade. The construction of the Daraa-Haifa railway, as an extension of the Hejaz Railway (Damascus–Medina) in 1904, dealt another blow, leading many residents to emigrate and causing a decline in the caravan trade that once fueled Acre’s economy. On the eve of World War I, Acre was connected to Haifa by rail.

Early 20th Century: Demographic and Urban Growth

In the early 20th century, Acre experienced modest growth. Its population rose from 8,146 in 1904 to 9,279 in 1908, and its housing increased from 963 to 1,000 homes. By 1908, the city included around 166 dunams, 415 shops, 6 mosques, 5 churches, 5 caravanserais, 22 public fountains, 2 public baths, a hospital, a hotel, and 13 coffeehouses.

At the start of the century, Acre’s urban design was rectangular, with most buildings tightly clustered within its walls. This led to the development of multi-story houses to accommodate growing demand. The city’s streets were narrow alleyways paved with square stones, and its market was small and densely packed. After the declaration of the Ottoman Constitution in 1908, residents were allowed to build outside the city walls, giving rise to a beautiful suburb known as “New Acre.”

British Mandate and Population Decline

During the British Mandate and due to the turmoil of World War I, Acre’s population declined to approximately 6,420 by 1922, with many residents moving to nearby cities like Haifa or emigrating abroad. However, the city’s condition gradually improved, and by 1931, the population had increased to 7,897, and the number of homes to 1,653. The surrounding suburbs—Ayn al-Sitt, al-Basatin, al-Raml, al-Tawahin, and the animal quarantine center—were home to 268 residents living in 77 houses.

Acre’s Demographic and Urban Evolution in the 20th Century

By 1938, the population of Acre had grown to approximately 8,800 residents, with 307 people living in its outlying suburbs. The urban area of the city covered around 1,474 dunams. By 1945, the population had risen further to 12,360, and the city had expanded slightly to 1,538 dunams—including 52 dunams designated for roads, valleys, and railway lines, and 6 dunams under Jewish ownership. During this period, the Acre Municipality played a vital role in modernizing the city. It expanded road networks and established Acre’s first municipal garden—an innovative step in urban planning in Palestine at the time.

The Impact of the 1948 War

The 1948 Arab–Israeli War had a dramatic effect on Acre. The city fell to Zionist forces, and its population dropped sharply to around 4,000 residents by the end of 1948, including 874 Jews. This demographic shift was the result of the large-scale displacement of its Arab inhabitants and the subsequent settlement of Jewish immigrants in their place. Following the war, the city began to grow again due to continued Zionist immigration. By 1965, Acre’s population had reached 31,700, of which only 4,000 were Arabs.

This trend persisted in the following decades. By 1973, Acre’s population had reached 35,500, including 4,500 Arab residents. In 1982, the total population rose slightly to 36,400, and by 2001, it had grown to 45,900 residents.

Urban expansion extended eastward, northward, and southward. The city’s municipal boundaries reached as far as Tel Napoleon to the east, the former village of al-Sumayriyya to the north, and the outskirts of Greater Haifa to the south. The new neighborhoods developed under Israeli administration were marked by uniform, four-story apartment blocks, reflecting a standardized approach to urban planning.

Economic and Demographic Disparities

A notable economic disparity developed in Acre after the occupation. All commercial establishments outside the Old City walls were Jewish-owned, while Arab ownership was mostly confined to businesses within the Old City. Since the occupation, the Israeli authorities have undertaken significant alterations to Acre’s physical and cultural landscape in an attempt to erase its Arab identity and impose a Zionist character.

Several historic buildings were demolished to create public squares—including areas near Qahwat al-Tahineh (Flour Café), south of Hammam al-Basha, and on the site of the old Casino. A new tourist district was developed near the harbor, along with a new waterfront promenade stretching from the Old Sea Café to the lighthouse.

Acre’s Evolving Roles Through History

Throughout its history, Acre has served multiple strategic roles, with varying prominence depending on the era. Among these, the military function was perhaps the most significant. Its formidable walls—surrounding the city from both land and sea—along with its towers, forts, and citadels, attest to its defensive importance.

Acre’s strategic location made it a target for invaders, leading to cycles of destruction, rebuilding, prosperity, and decline. The city was often caught between periods of chaos and calm. Its residents consistently demonstrated bravery in defending their homeland, sacrificing thousands of lives—especially during the Crusader invasions, Napoleon Bonaparte’s siege, and the 1948 occupation by Zionist militias.

Commercial and Economic Significance

Historically, Acre played a vital role in trade and commerce. Its port served as a hub for importing foreign goods and exporting agricultural products from northern Palestine, Jordan, and Hauran in southern Syria. It functioned as a key link between Europe and the Levant and as a gathering point for Christian pilgrims on their way to the Holy Land.

European merchants during the Ottoman era benefited from special commercial privileges and used Khan al-Franj (north-east of Khan al-Jazzar) and Khan al-Shawarda (along the road between Bab al-Barr and the port) as storage depots.

Under rulers like Daher al-Omar and Ahmed al-Jazzar, several khans (caravanserais) were built to accommodate merchants, travelers, and caravans transporting regional produce to distant shores. These khans flourished until the late 19th century, with Khan al-Jazzar and Khan al-Shunah being among the most prominent.

Near the Al-Jazzar Mosque, an eastern market formed, composed of two rows of vaulted shops divided by a wide covered walkway. Today, it’s known as the Eastern Market, where vendors sell fruits, vegetables, jewelry, and souvenirs for tourists visiting Acre’s historical landmarks.

Agriculture and the Rural Connection

East of Acre lies a small but fertile stretch of agricultural land that remains under Arab ownership. The area produces a variety of cereal grains, vegetables, and fruit-bearing trees. Chief among the latter are olive and citrus trees, followed by grapes, figs, almonds, apricots, plums, peaches, apples, pears, bananas, and date palms. To the north of the city is the Bahjat Orchard.

However, local agricultural output does not meet the city’s consumption needs, so Acre has long relied on the surrounding Arab countryside for both agricultural and livestock products to sustain its food supply.

Acre’s Role in the Fishing Industry and Early Industrial Development

Acre has long been recognized as one of Palestine’s most important fishing ports. Fish production saw a dramatic rise—from 44 tons in 1925 to an impressive 18,000 tons by 1945. After the Zionist occupation of Acre, fishing activities intensified to the point of overexploitation and depletion of marine resources.

In addition to fishing, a livestock experimental farm was established about two kilometers north of the city, aimed at agricultural and animal husbandry research.

Limited Traditional Industries and British-Era Expansion

Historically, Acre’s industrial base was limited. Its economy traditionally relied on purple dye extracted from seashells (a legacy dating back to Phoenician times), wool cloaks and silk textiles, iron doors, and wooden boats.

However, during the British Mandate period, Arab industries in Acre experienced notable growth. The city began producing a variety of goods, including:

  • Sulfur (sulphur)

  • Pottery and bricks

  • Olive oil

  • Sweets and confections

  • Textiles

  • Glassware, ceramics, and mirrors

  • Paints

  • Electric appliances

  • Carbonated beverages

  • Flour and ice

The Israeli Occupation and Industrial Restructuring

After the occupation, the Israeli authorities established an industrial zone east of the city. This area included several large factories:

  • A steel production plant (City of Steel)

  • A steel pipe factory

  • A canning factory for fruits and vegetables

  • A sardine canning plant

  • A porcelain factory near the Na’aman River estuary

  • A factory for electrical appliances and chemical materials

In addition to these major facilities, the city hosted dozens of small workshops—including copper works and tourist-related crafts, many of which are still operated by Arab artisans.

Acre’s Administrative and Strategic Importance Through History

By 400 CE, Acre served as the administrative center of a district stretching from Mount Carmel in the south to Wadi al-Qarn and al-Zeeb in the north. During the Crusades, Acre became the most important Frankish stronghold in the Levant, earning the title “Kingdom of Acre.”

In the 18th century, it gained renewed political stature under Zahir al-Umar, who declared it the capital of his autonomous domain. Later, Ahmad al-Jazzar Pasha used Acre as the center of his Ottoman governorship.

By 1888, Acre was officially designated as one of the districts (qada) under the Vilayet of Beirut. At that time, the Acre District included three sub-districts (nawahi) and 58 villages. In 1906, ten of these villages were annexed to the District of Nazareth, reducing the number of villages in the Acre District to 48. During World War I, the district once again expanded, encompassing 60 villages.

Acre District During the Late British Mandate

By the end of the British Mandate in 1945, the District of Acre (Qada Acre) included:

  • The city of Acre

  • 52 villages

  • 8 Bedouin tribal encampments

  • 9 Zionist settlements

The total area of the district was approximately 800 square kilometers, with a population of about 68,330 people. The ten most populous villages at that time were:
Tarshiha, al-Bassa, Sakhnin, al-Zeeb, Tamra, Arraba, Sha’ab, al-Rama, Beit Jann, and al-Birwa.

Acre served as the administrative capital of the district, housing the various government departments that managed public affairs in the city and its surrounding areas. Under Israeli control, Acre retained its administrative role, albeit within a restructured and redefined political framework.

Education in Acre: Growth and Challenges

During World War I, Acre had five government schools:

  • One intermediate school with 70 male students

  • Two primary schools for boys with a total of 252 students

  • Two primary schools for girls with 220 students

In addition, the Greek Orthodox community operated a boys’ elementary school and a kindergarten, each with around 70 students.

By the British Mandate era, education expanded significantly. During the 1942–1943 academic year, there were:

  • Three government schools: two for boys, one for girls

  • 660 male students taught by 19 male teachers

  • 531 female students taught by 15 female teachers

There were also ten private schools, including the renowned Al-Jazzar School, which enrolled 1,067 students of both genders.

By the end of the British occupation, Acre had:

  • Two official boys’ schools: one full secondary, the other elementary

  • Two girls’ schools: one intermediate secondary, and one elementary

Private schools were numerous and mostly run by charitable organizations. All Acre schools placed emphasis on scouting and physical education, reflecting a well-rounded approach to student development.

Cultural Impact and Educational Oppression

This educational renaissance significantly raised the cultural awareness and intellectual engagement of Acre’s Arab population. It contributed to an increasing openness among the city’s residents toward foreign cultures and global ideas.

However, under Zionist occupation, Acre’s Arab residents, like many in other occupied Palestinian territories, suffer systematic educational discrimination. One of the most severe challenges remains the Israeli-imposed curriculum, designed to erase Palestinian identity and impede Arab students from accessing quality education or continuing their academic journeys freely.