Tiberias

 A City Shaped by Survival and Geography

If cities are born and struggle to survive, then Tiberias has embodied this trait since its inception. Like the other cities of the Palestinian Jordan Valley—Samakh, Beisan (Beth Shean), and Jericho—it formed part of the Syrian-African Rift cities in the Levant. From the beginning of the Christian era, Tiberias exhibited a remarkable adaptability and resilience, responding to the changing circumstances of its location. The city’s development on multiple sites stands as evidence of that flexibility.

Tiberias is located in northeastern Palestine, and served as the center of the Tiberias district, one of the four districts comprising the Acre Subdistrict during both Ottoman rule and the British Mandate period.

The city sits on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, at the base of Eastern Galilee, about 20 km south of the Jordan River’s inlet into the lake and 9 km north of the river’s outlet at the lake’s southwestern corner.

Tiberias is 160 km from Jerusalem, 141 km from Lydda (Lod), 86 km from Acre, and 194 km from Majdal Asqalan (Ashkelon). It lies 71 km from Quneitra and 137 km from Damascus in Syria. A main road connects it to Haifa via Nazareth, and it also links with Afula, Jenin, Nablus, and Jerusalem. Another main road connects Tiberias with Samakh and Beisan, with a branch extending toward Afula. A road from Tiberias heads north to Metulla, and another leads northwest toward Safad and Acre. In addition, several secondary roads connect Tiberias with the nearby villages of its district.

A. Strategic Location 

Tiberias has held great strategic importance since its foundation. It was built by Herod Antipas in 22 CE on the site of the Canaanite town of Rakkat, of which only remnants like its fortifications remain. This site is now known as Khirbat al-Qunaytirah, north of modern Tiberias. The city was named after the Roman Emperor Tiberius.

Under Roman rule, Tiberias flourished. Herod found in it the only defensible site around the lake due to its direct overlook of the Sea of Galilee, prompting him to build a fortress near the lake’s shore. Tiberias’s proximity to thermal baths, which were of great interest to the Romans, added to its importance. These geographic and environmental features played a major role in the city’s establishment.

The Bible describes Tiberias as a thriving city. After Titus burned Jerusalem in 70 CE and prohibited Jews from living there, he allowed them to settle in Tiberias, where their scholars made it a religious center.

Tiberias’s significance grew further due to its position on the ancient trade route between Damascus and Egypt. This caravan route passed through Kiswah, Fiq, Tiberias, al-Lajjun, Qalansuwa, Lod, Ashdod, Gaza, Rafah, and then to Sinai and Egypt. This route gave Tiberias a prominent role in Arab history, especially since Tiberian dirhams, ancient coins minted in the city, were used in pre-Islamic Arab trade with the Romans.

In 15 AH (636 CE), after the Muslim conquest of Tiberias, Khalid ibn al-Walid issued Islamic dirhams to replace the older ones. In 30 AH (650 CE), Caliph Uthman ibn Affan sent a copy of the Qur’an (a manuscript version of the Uthmanic codex) to Tiberias for public recitation.

Historically, Tiberias had an important industrial role, hosting various industries—most notably glass and pottery manufacturing.

After the Islamic conquest of the Levant, Tiberias became the capital of the Jordan military district (Jund al-Urdunn), which included cities such as Jerusalem, Tyre, Acre, al-Lajjun, Beisan, Qadita, and Daraa.

These historical facts confirm that Tiberias was primarily a defensive stronghold, later a major stop on the trade route between Damascus and Egypt, a gateway to northern Palestine, and an administrative center after the Islamic conquest.

In 1187 CE, Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin) recaptured Tiberias from the Crusaders just before defeating them in the Battle of Hattin in the same year. However, in 1240 CE, al-Salih Ismail, ruler of Damascus, surrendered Tiberias to the Crusaders, along with Jerusalem and Ashkelon. In 1247 CE, al-Salih Ayyub, ruler of Egypt, reclaimed Tiberias and its fortress with the help of Prince Fakhr al-Din ibn al-Shaykh.

Decline, Recovery, and Topographical Features

Tiberias fell into ruin due to successive wars and the Tatar invasions in the 14th century CE, which nearly caused the city’s disappearance. As a result, Beisan (Beth Shean) replaced it in importance as a stop on the caravan trade route.

The Ottomans took control of Tiberias in 1517, along with the rest of the Levant. In 1562, Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent permitted Jews to settle in Tiberias and study their religious teachings. In the early 18th century, the Zayadina tribe settled in the city, with its members cultivating parts of its land.

In 1730, the governor of Sidon issued an order granting Dahir al-Umar authority over Tiberias and the nearby villages. Dahir made Tiberias his administrative seat, fortified it, and contributed to its urban development. However, after he captured Acre, he transferred his capital from Tiberias to that city.

Tiberias again declined in importance in the 18th century, and in 1796, it was seized by Napoleon Bonaparte. During the 19th century, Tiberias and its surrounding area, which included 12 villages, became part of the Province of Acre and served as one of its key defensive centers.

The city experienced a period of prosperity during the Egyptian rule of Palestine (under Muhammad Ali), when its hot springs were restored, and large numbers of visitors began coming from abroad to benefit from its thermal waters. However, this revival was short-lived. In early 1837, a powerful earthquake devastated the city, killing over 600 people and injuring many others in Tiberias alone (see: Earthquakes in Palestine).

At the beginning of the 20th century, during the British occupation of Palestine, Zionist interest in Tiberias grew significantly. Waves of Zionist immigrants began arriving in the city to settle there permanently.

1) Topographical Features

Tiberias is located on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberias). This lake is the northern remnant of what was once Lake Lisan, part of the Jordan Valley during the Pleistocene epoch.

The Sea of Galilee lies within a tectonic depression, which stretches northward into valleys oriented northwest and northeast. In the southern part of this depression, the floodplain fan formed by the Yarmouk River, as it joins the Jordan River, has created a barrier.

The water level of the Sea of Galilee is about 212 meters below sea level, while the city itself lies at elevations ranging between 160 to 200 meters below sea level.

The region’s tectonic instability is still present, as indicated by the basaltic plains and the area’s frequent seismic activity. Another sign of ongoing geological activity is the presence of mineral hot springs around the lake—especially those located just south of Tiberias. The structural depression has facilitated the flow of basalt lava from its main sources in Hauran and the Golan Heights westward into the valley.

Several valleys and wadis, in addition to the Jordan River, drain into the lake, flowing from the northern edge. These seasonal streams have deposited alluvial soils at their outlets—such as Wadi al-Amud, Wadi al-Hammam, and others—forming fertile areas suitable for cultivation.

 

A) Geographical Features and Natural Environment of Tiberias

Tiberias is situated on a flat plain along the western shore of the Sea of Galilee, which extends north and south toward the surrounding highlands. South of the Ghawir Plain, the hills descend toward the lake and are intersected by a valley that cuts through the plateau above the hills. South of this valley, the terrain opens up before the hills, where a flat strip of land lies between the city and the western hill slopes. This area is known as ‘Aridha land, and has been used by locals for agriculture.

To the north of the city lies the Maqati area and Wadi al-Hamees, near the Abu ‘Aisha spring. To the south, mineral springs flow from the ground. To the west of Tiberias rises Mount al-Luzat, which extends southward and gradually changes names to become Mount Qaqa‘iya and Mount al-Manarah. From there, a series of small mountains branches out, forming a natural barrier that surrounds the southern parts of Tiberias along the southwestern edge of the lake.

Urban development in Tiberias spread across the western hill slopes, starting from the lake’s shore and rising toward the edge of the plateau overlooking the city and the lake. To the south, the city expanded to include the Tiberias hot springs. To the north, it extends over a flat area toward the town of al-Majdal.

Forests are found to the northwest of Tiberias, where a natural park has been established. Forests also cover the slopes directly west of the city.

The hills surrounding the west, northwest, and south of Tiberias give rise to several intermittent wadis (valleys), including Wadi al-Shahba (north of the city), Wadi Abu al-Raml, and Wadi al-Dalaf (to the south). The area west of the city is also rich in springs, the most important of which are ‘Ayn al-Teenah, ‘Ayn al-Biyar, ‘Ayn Sitt al-Kul, and ‘Ayn Abu ‘Aisha, located north of the city along the shore (see: Water Springs).

The mountainous ridge to the west of Tiberias forms a watershed, dividing the drainage toward the southwest (ending in the Jordan Valley) and toward the Sea of Galilee’s northwestern shore.

2) Climatic Conditions

Tiberias’ climate is greatly influenced by its low elevation, over 200 meters below sea level. As a result, summer temperatures are much higher than those of the coastal plain. The average daily high can reach up to 38°C, and at times, extreme temperatures of up to 50°C have been recorded.

In contrast, the winter high temperature can reach 18°C, influenced by the thermal effect of the lake itself. Spring in Tiberias is short, with a rapid transition from winter to summer. Temperatures rise even further when eastern winds (Khamaseen) blow hot air from the Golan Heights toward the western shore of the lake, often causing heatwaves.

Rainfall differences between Tiberias and the western hill slopes are minimal due to the relatively small elevation change. In comparison to the Lower Galilee, which receives around 500 mm annually, southern Tiberias receives about 375 mm, while the northern part receives 475 mm.

The region is thus suitable for rain-fed agriculture. The rainfall pattern is stormy and thundery, occurring in short, sudden bursts—mainly toward the end of winter. These intense storms are driven by increased air movement and rising temperatures in the Jordan Rift Valley, and they often cause flash floods and rapid runoff, sometimes leading to destruction in parts of the city. On average, Tiberias experiences 23 rainy days per year, and humidity levels can reach 65%.

B) Urban Development of the City

The central and southern parts of modern Tiberias stand on the ruins of the ancient Roman city built by Herod Antipas, who constructed temples, baths, a central forum, and large buildings. He supplied the city with water through a 15-kilometer-long aqueduct.

Tiberias contains remains of several churches belonging to different Christian denominations, all located near the lake’s shoreline. These date back to the era of Emperor Constantine’s conversion to Christianity, though much of the city was destroyed during the Persian invasion of Palestine.

C) Urban Structure and Growth of Tiberias

The old city of Tiberias occupies a location near the site of ancient Canaanite Raqa, a name meaning “strip” or “shore.” The traveler Nasir Khusraw mentioned that parts of Tiberias extended over the lake, with buildings erected on marble columns whose foundations were laid in the water. The geographer al-Maqdisi described the city as follows:

“It has a strong wall that starts from the shore and extends around the city. From the sea side, there is no wall. The mosque is located in the city center, and on the western side, there is a mosque called the Jasmine Mosque.”

It appears that the fortress of Tiberias, restored by Zahir al-Umar in 1730, was used as offices for governmental departments, later known as the Old Seraya. Zahir al-Umar added new sections to Tiberias’ wall in 1749 and built a large mosque in the northern quarter known as the Zaydani Mosque.

In the first third of the 19th century, Tiberias was surrounded by a thick, sturdy wall on the landward side. What remained of this wall was about 100 meters long and 40 meters wide, with approximately 25 towers. The wall reached a height of 6 meters, and featured parapets, high barricades, and loopholes for firing small arms. This wall surrounded the town on three sides, with both ends reaching the water.

A large part of the wall collapsed during the 1837 earthquake that struck Palestine. At that time, buildings were limited to within the wall and remained so until 1904, when residents were allowed to build outside it, but only 15 houses were constructed.

A map drawn by Burckhardt in 1812 shows that the city had two gates:

• A large northern gate,
• And a small southern gate,
  The Seraya is located near the northern one.
  Inside the town, there was a modern market and two mosques—one spacious, the other a beautiful building with arches. The vaults near the shore were connected by narrow intersecting alleys with very low ceilings, used as storage spaces due to their cool, humid conditions in summer.

Modern Tiberias expanded north of the ancient Roman city, which lay between the present-day city and the hot springs. The southern expansion of the city was limited by the mountain chain along the lakeshore and the existence of the baths, keeping the city enclosed within its walls—except for the lakeside.

The nucleus of the modern city developed along the lake shore within the old city walls, between the coast and the main road connecting Tiberias to Nazareth and Haifa. Eventually, the city broke free of its confinement and began expanding northwestward, and to a lesser extent west and south.

A new phase of urban growth began in 1920, when Jews established the Kiryat Shmuel colony at 80 meters above sea level, northwest of the city. After the 1948 occupation, Tiberias became one of the major centers of development in occupied Palestine.

D) Population of Tiberias

1) Population Growth

A look at the history of Tiberias reveals that it remained, for a long time, a military garrison, a leisure and health resort, and later, after the Islamic conquest, an administrative capital of Jund al-Urdunn (the Jordan District). These three functions—military, recreational, and administrative—greatly influenced the population growth of the city, attracting residents from nearby regions.

Remains of public buildings uncovered in archaeological excavations suggest that the population in the Islamic era was much higher than in modern times, possibly reaching 35,000 inhabitants. This growth was due to:

(1) Natural Factors

• Warm climate, favorable for growing specific crops.
• The presence of hot springs attracts health seekers from across Palestine and the Levant.
• Abundant fish in the Sea of Galilee.
• Fertile volcanic soils are suitable for agriculture.

(2) Human Factors

• The Roman-built fortress housed a large number of soldiers and their families.
• A portion of the population served the needs of visitors to the hot springs.
• After the Islamic conquest, the city was chosen as the capital of Jund al-Urdunn, making it a hub of administration and trade.

These natural and human factors encouraged stable settlement in the area. Tiberias developed industries like:

• Fish processing and export,
• Trade,
• Wine production during the Roman era, particularly in the volcanic soil west of the city, was ideal for growing grapes.
• Basalt rock, widely available, was used in construction, with an area called al-Maqati, northwest of the city, supplying building stones to the coastal plain of Palestine.

There is no precise population data for ancient periods. Jews settled in Tiberias in 1560, initially maintaining good relations with the original inhabitants. However, during the British Mandate, relations deteriorated due to the growing Zionist movement advocating for a Jewish homeland in Palestine.

Various historians and travelers provided differing estimates of the city’s population, although basic demographic data (birth rates, migration) is lacking. Therefore, population growth rates are the most practical tool for analyzing changes over time.

• Between 1908 and 1922, the annual population growth rate was about 18 per thousand.
• Between 1922 and 1931, it rose to 24 per thousand.
• Between 1931 and 1945, it reached 32 per thousand, due to both natural increase and immigration.

Improved health services helped reduce high mortality rates, especially from epidemics in the 1930s. Infant mortality dropped from 125 per thousand to 75 per thousand between 1931 and 1941.

 

1) Migration and Demographic Change

Migration played a significant role—both positively and negatively—in the population growth of Tiberias, whether through Jewish immigration or the forced displacement of Arab residents.

When Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent allowed Jews to settle in Tiberias in the mid-16th century, their numbers began to grow. However, reliable data on the Jewish population is not available until the 19th century, except for some sources indicating that in 1839, there were 600 Jews in the city.

During the 19th century, various estimates about the number of Jews were made. For example, Burckhardt estimated in 1812 that Jews made up a quarter of the population—about 1,000 people.

In the 1922 census, Jews comprised 64% of the population, but by the 1931 census, that percentage had dropped to 47%, according to Notschtein and Gurkat, who noted that errors in recording Arab residents occurred in the 1922 census. They also calculated that the net migration rate to Tiberias was about 6% of the population between 1923 and 1931.

By 1947, half the city’s population was of foreign origin. Tiberias was one of the first Palestinian cities to receive Jewish immigrants, due to its importance as a Jewish religious center. The previous figures confirm that Jewish immigration continued steadily, but this did not significantly reduce the Arab population—until the Nakba in 1948, when Arabs were forcibly expelled from the city.

• In 1945, the population was estimated at 11,310 people, both Arabs and Jews.
• By 1948, after the expulsion of the Arabs, the population dropped to 5,566, all Jews—about half the previous number.
• The data shows that Tiberias was one of the first Palestinian cities to be emptied of its Arab residents and repopulated with Jewish immigrants.
• Before the 1967 war, immigrant soldiers accounted for 46% of the city’s Jewish population.
• By 1983, Tiberias had 28,200 residents, increasing to 39,500 by 2001.

2) Population Composition: Gender, Education, Occupations

According to 1931 census data, the gender ratio in Tiberias was 94 males for every 100 females:

• Among Arabs: 97 males per 100 females
• Among Jews: 93 males per 100 females

The educational level in the city was relatively high, as shown by the literacy rate, which had improved:

• In 1931, illiteracy among those aged 14+ was 53%.
• In 1943, the literacy rate was 497 per thousand for people aged 7+:
  • Males: 645 per 1,000
  • Females: 364 per 1,000

Among children aged 5–15:

• 65% of boys and
• 55% of girls
  were enrolled in school.

In terms of occupations, the residents of Tiberias relied on:

• Agriculture and fishing: Some owned boats and fished in the lake.
• Farming the surrounding land.
• About one-quarter of the workforce was employed in administration, education, and healthcare.
• Others worked in tourism and recreation services.
• A small portion of Jewish residents worked in trade, while many relied on financial aid from the Jewish National Fund in Europe.

After the 1948 occupation, the city’s occupational structure shifted:
Tourism became the primary economic activity.

D) Urban Layout of the City

In 1945, Tiberias covered an area of 1,305 dunams, including:

• 432 dunams for roads and valleys.
• Width: about 400 meters from the lake shore to the Aridah lands west of the city.
• Length: 600–700 meters from north to south.

The city lay on a terrace of alluvial soils, debris, and basalt rocks along the western shore of the Sea of Galilee. The surrounding hills to the west, northwest, and south limited expansion, so the city grew lengthwise along the coast, particularly to the north and northwest. The city was intersected by valleys running from west to east.

• • Wide streets ran east-west, with a main road running north-south, lined with shops, forming the main commercial area.
  • Other streets also had small shops.

 

• The city had two main mosques:
  • Al-Jisr Mosque in the south
  • 
    Al-Zaydani Mosque in the north
• A slaughterhouse was located south of the city, east of the Tiberias–Samakh road.
• Streets extended slightly westward, and more extensively northward, especially between the coastal road to Metula and the road to Nazareth and Haifa, intersected by side streets.

In the northern part of the modern city, a main hospital was built north of the old British Mandate government building.

City Layout Before 1948

Tiberias was divided into three main sections (north to south):

(1) Coastal Strip

• Included key landmarks like:
  • Boat station in the north
  • Al-Zaydani Mosque
  • Jewish residential quarter
  • Slaughterhouse
  • Hot springs at the southern end

(2) Central Section:

• Adjacent to the coastal strip, containing:
  • Main hospital
  • Foreign missionary hospitals
  • Old government building
  • Main commercial market
  • Main residential neighborhood (inside the old city walls)
  • Al-Jisr Mosque (south of the market)

(3) Western Section

• Consisted mainly of:
  • Al-Maqati’s area (for basalt stone quarrying)
  • Aridah lands (used for farming)
  • Cemeteries

After 1948, the northern parts of the city changed significantly.
The Zionist authorities demolished Arab neighborhoods and:

• Expanded Kiryat Shmuel colony (established in 1920)
• Built parks, public gardens, tourist hotels, and modern buildings
• Established a new residential neighborhood on the western hills, overlooking the Tiberias hot springs

1) City Buildings

The houses in Tiberias were built using black basalt stones, which were quarried from the al-Maqati area west of the city. Residents took advantage of this locally available material to construct their homes, and in the past, these stones were also exported to the coastal plain.

• More than half of the buildings in Tiberias were single-story structures.
• The remainder consisted of two or three stories.
• Most buildings were adjacent to each other, and shared a uniform architectural style, usually with pyramidal roofs and built in square or rectangular shapes.
• Roofs were typically made of earth, and only a few were built with brick.

2) Tiberias Hot Springs

Located two kilometers south of Tiberias are its famous thermal mineral baths, used both historically and presently for healing and therapy.

• The waters are rich in minerals and chemical compounds such as sodium, salt, iodine, sulfur, and manganese.
• The Canaanites built a city near them called “Hamat”, meaning “hot springs”.
• During the Roman era, it was known as “Amathus”.
• The current baths sit atop the ruins of Roman and Arab structures.
• The “Ancient Bath” pool was built during the Islamic conquest.
• The “Great Bath” was built in 1830 by Abdullah al-Jazzar, the Ottoman governor of Acre.
• The temperature of the waters reaches 37.8°C, and people from all over Syria and Palestine used to come for treatment, especially for rheumatism and skin diseases.
• A paved road links the baths to Tiberias, along which lie the ruins of ancient Tiberias.
• In 1910, two Lebanese individuals were granted a 35-year concession to rebuild and invest in the baths, but the British authorities obstructed their efforts and later granted the concession to a Jewish company.

3) Services and Infrastructure in Tiberias

During Ottoman rule, Tiberias served as the administrative center of the Tiberias District, established in 1911. At the time, the city included:

• A government office
• Six schools
• A hotel
• A hospital
• An olive press

During World War I, there were:

• Two official schools (one for boys, one for girls)
• Six Jewish schools
• Three foreign missionary schools
• Three Christian churches
• Ten synagogues
• Two major mosques

Residents obtained drinking water from Ein Abu Aisha, transported via pipes, while lake water was used for all other purposes.

Tiberias was a major commercial hub for the northern Jordan Valley, supported by:

• A railway south of the lake, connecting it to the Jordan Valley and Haifa via Samakh
• Paved roads linking it to Safed and Jerusalem

The city had a high educational standard, thanks to the available services.
In the 1947–1948 academic year, the number of Arab students enrolled in primary schools in Tiberias was 1,030.
In 1942–1943, Jews had six schools in the city, with 851 students enrolled that year.

4) The Israeli Occupation of Tiberias and Its Transformation

Jewish residents who had come to Tiberias initially maintained peaceful relations with its Arab population until the start of the British Mandate in 1920.
After that, frequent clashes broke out between Arabs and Jews, especially during the 1936–1939 revolt.

After the UN Partition Plan was announced on November 29, 1947, armed conflicts escalated between Arab residents and Jewish immigrants.

On April 15, 1948, Jewish forces seized the city with assistance from British troops stationed there.
The British evacuated the Arab population to churches and mosques in Nazareth, allowing Jews to invade Arab homes and loot them.

On April 19, 1948, the British officially handed over the city to the Jews, making Tiberias the first Palestinian city to be handed over directly by the British to Jewish control.

Afterward:

• The Arab neighborhoods were demolished.
• The southern mosque (Al-Jisr Mosque) was turned into a local museum.
• The Kiryat Shmuel colony was expanded and renovated.
• The city was surrounded by new Jewish settlements, the most important of which were:
  • Kinneret
  • Yavne’el
  • Rosh Pina
  • Gesher Bnot Yaakov (Daughters of Jacob Bridge)

Source: All That Remains, by Walid Khalidi